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Country Name	Legal descriptions
LUXEMBOURG	The term for a lawyer in Luxembourg is Avocat or Avocat à la Cour, depending upon level of training. Partnerships are permitted. The requirement for admission to practice as an Avocat is four years of university study. For admission as an Avocat à la Cour, an apprenticeship of two years is required, during which the Avocat studies under an Avocat à la Cour and undertakes limited practice, followed by successful completion of an admission examination. An Avocat à la Cour may appear before any court in Luxembourg. Under certain conditions, lawyers from other EEC (European Economic Community) countries may appear before the Luxembourg courts. The Notaire (notary) in Luxembourg must complete four years of university study and a two-year apprenticeship, after which appointment is made by the Minister of Justice; the number of Notaire positions is limited. The professions of Notaire and Avocat are separate and mutually exclusive. A Notaire is the only officer authorized to pass official deeds such as conveyance of real estate or incorporation of companies. The principal language of the courts is French; German and Luxembourgish also may be used.
VIETNAM	The term for a lawyer in Vietnam is Barrister or Solicitor. Barristers appear before courts; Solicitors advise. Partnerships are permitted. The educational requirements for becoming an attorney are a law degree from a recognized university followed by two years of practice in a province bar association and a practicing license from the Department of Justice. After being admitted to practice, Barristers may appear before all courts in Vietnam. Foreign lawyers may not appear before Vietnamese courts but may advise on International Law or the laws of their own countries if they have a license from the Ministry of Justice. The Notary Public must have a law degree from a recognized university, be of good ethics and have practiced as a Barrister or Solicitor for at least five years. The official language of the courts is Vietnamese.
JAPAN	The term for a practicing attorney in Japan is Bengoshi. Partnerships are permitted among Bengoshi and Gaikokuho-Jimu-Bengoshi. The requirements for admission to practice are to complete a law school curriculum, to pass the national bar examination and to complete a one-year apprenticeship at the Legal Training and Research Institute of the Supreme Court. This system started in April 2004; traditional systems for legal training will continue to exist alongside this new system until 2010. After admission to practice, a Bengoshi may appear before any court in Japan. Other licensed legal professionals in Japan include Zeirishi (tax attorneys) and Benrishi (patent attorneys). Qualified lawyers from other countries may receive the status of Gaikokuho-Jimu-Bengoshi (registered foreign lawyer) if approved by the Minister of Justice. Certain requirements must be met, including at least three years of practical experience in their home countries. After they are approved by the Minister of Justice, qualified foreign lawyers may only practice law as a Gaikokuho-Jimu-Bengoshi by registering with the Japan Federation of Bar Associations. They may only practice the law of their designated jurisdiction(s), and may not appear before the court. The Notary in Japan is a public official who is assigned to a specific area. A Notary prepares and authenticates legal documents, including wills and articles of incorporation of companies. The Shiho Shoshi (judicial scrivener) handles registration and cash deposit matters with the Legal Affairs Bureau and prepares documents for the court. The Gyosei Shoshi (administrative scrivener) drafts and prepares official documents for public agencies. The official language of the courts is Japanese.
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES	The term for a lawyer in the United Arab Emirates is Advocate. Partnerships are permitted when a local advocate sponsors the partnership. The requirement for admission to practice is a law degree from a recognized university, Arab or non-Arab. Seven states make up the United Arab Emirates, and admission to each one is separate. Lawyers with ten years experience in other Arab countries may be admitted. Non-Arabs may not be admitted to practice in Dubai. After fifteen years of practice, an Advocate may be admitted to the Supreme Court of the Union. Foreign lawyers may appear when associated with a local practitioner and after receiving permission of the court concerned. The United Arab Emirates has no notaries; authentication of documents is done by the Clerk of Justice and the Registrar of Real Property of the Ministry of Justice. The official language of the courts is Arabic.
AUSTRIA	The term for a lawyer in Austria is Rechtsanwalt. The requirements for admission to practice are a Doctor Juris or Magister Juris from an Austrian university, followed by a five-year training period at a law office and court. After three years of the training period, a candidate may sit for the bar examination; however, the full five-year training period must be completed before the title of Rechtsanwalt is conferred along with full admission to practice before any court in Austria. The Notar (notary) in Austria must possess a Doctor Juris or Magister Juris, serve a three-year apprenticeship and successfully complete a notarial examination. A Notar draws up, authenticates and preserves documents. The official language of the courts is German.
POLAND	The term for a lawyer in Poland is Adwokat. Partnerships are permitted according to article 4a of the Law on the advocates' profession: An Adwokat may practice in an adwokats' office (kancelaria), bar association (zespól adwokacki), or through a registered partnership (spólka jawna), civil law partnership (spólka cywilna), professional partnership (spólka partnerska) or limited partnership (spólka komandytowa) with the exclusive participation of adwokats or adwokats and legal advisers (radca prawny) including general partners in a limited partnership (spólka komandytowa) as well as foreign lawyers with a permanent practice according to the Act of 5 July 2002 on the provision of legal assistance by foreign lawyers in the Republic of Poland (Journal of Laws no. 126 item 1069). The sole objective of the partnership's activities must be the provision of legal services. The requirements for admission to practice are an LL.M. degree from one of Poland's sixteen universities and either three and a half years as a trainee adwokat and completion of the final bar examination, or two years as a trainee judge or trainee prosecutor, successful completion of an examination which qualifies the candidate as a judge or public prosecutor, an additional one and a half years as a trainee adwokat and completion of the final bar examination. After admission to practice and registration on the Bar Council list, an Adwokat may appear before any court in Poland. Foreign lawyers are permitted to practice in Poland on a permanent basis after having been entered onto one of the lists of foreign lawyers kept by the District Bar Councils and under condition they have an agreement with a Polish Adwokat, pursuant to the Act of 5 July 2002 on the provision by foreign lawyers of legal assistance in the Republic of Poland. The Notariusz (notary) in Poland must possess a law degree and practice as a trainee Notariusz for two and a half years, then complete the final notary examination. Notaries are supervised by the Minister of Justice and the national Notary Council. A Notariusz authenticates and preserves documents. The official language of the courts is Polish.
TAIWAN	The term for a lawyer in Taiwan is Attorney, although while representing clients in a civil suit an attorney is referred to as an Agent Ad Litem, and while representing defendants in criminal cases is called an Advocate. Partnerships are permitted. The requirements for admission to practice are a law degree from a law school recognized by the Republic's Ministry of Education (although this degree may not be necessary under some specific circumstances), a six-month internship with an attorney (with one month spent in an attorney training course) and successful completion of the Bar Examination. Attorneys must also obtain a license from the Ministry of Justice. Retired judges and prosecutors, military judges, public defenders and law school professors may also qualify as attorneys upon meeting certain qualification standards. After qualifying as an Attorney, an Attorney must register with one District Court to practice law. Before the amendments to the Attorney Act in 2002, an Attorney was only allowed to register with four District Courts and practice law in those four jurisdictions. Now an Attorney may appear before any District Court if she or he joins, as required, the local Bar Association of that jurisdiction. There is no registration requirement for the Supreme Court. Foreign lawyers may practice in Taiwan if the foreign lawyer has passed the Taiwan bar exam. Nonetheless, attorneys admitted in foreign jurisdictions may act as Attorneys of Foreign Legal Affairs and provide legal services on matters concerning international law or the foreign laws of the jurisdiction to which they are admitted. An Attorney of Foreign Legal Affairs may also form partnerships with local attorneys and hire local attorneys pursuant to related permission and management regulations promulgated by the Ministry of Justice. The Notary Public must pass the notary public examination but is not required to obtain a law degree. One may also qualify as a Notary Public by possessing certain designated legal qualifications and practice experience. The functions of the Notary Public are designated by the Judicial Yuan through the Department of Notaries Public of each District Court. According to the revised Notary Public Law promulgated on April 21, 1999, beginning in April 2001, private Notaries Public will become available in Taiwan. The official language of the courts is Mandarin Chinese, although Taiwanese is occasionally used during court proceedings. Foreign lawyers are required to use Mandarin Chinese before local courts.
ARUBA	The term for a lawyer in Aruba is Advocaat. Partnerships are permitted. The requirement for admission to practice is a Meester in de Rechten. No clerkship or apprenticeship is required. After admission to practice, an Advocaat may appear before any court on the island. The Notaris (notary) in Aruba must possess a special degree in Notarial Science conferred in the Netherlands. A Notaris authenticates and preserves documents. The official language of the courts is Dutch.
WALES	The rules governing the practice of law are the same for both England and Wales. A lawyer is referred to as either a Solicitor or a Barrister. Solicitors may form partnerships; Barristers may not. A Solicitor covers a wider range of areas than a Barrister, often overlapping professions such as accountant, architect and estate agent. The requirements for admission to practice as a Solicitor are a university degree, followed by one year of practical training under The Law Society of England and Wales and successful completion of a final examination. The applicant must then serve a two-year articled clerkship under a practicing Solicitor. At the end of the clerkship, a Practicing Certificate is awarded. Those applicants whose university education was in a subject other than law must complete an additional year of academic study before their practical training and final examination. Most advocacy in the lower courts is conducted by a Solicitor; for further litigation the Solicitor may instruct a Barrister to plead, although changes are in hand to bring the advocacy rights of the two branches in line with each other. (Solicitors have the right to appear in the higher courts after obtaining a further qualification.) A Barrister acts as a consultant, an advocate and an advisor in all matters involving litigation and the practice of courts; some Barristers may specialize in a particular field of law. A practicing Barrister normally has no direct contact with the client, although some clearly-defined professional groups have recently been allowed direct access to Barristers. For admission to practice as a Barrister, the university graduate will follow a vocational course before being called to the bar. After a further one-year pupillage and examination, the rank of Barrister may be conferred by one of the four Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn, Gray's Inn, Inner Temple and Middle Temple. The Inns of Court are guilds and have the sole right to confer the rank of Barrister and to disbar members for misconduct; all Barristers must be members of one of the four Inns. Barristers and Solicitors with higher court advocacy rights have the exclusive right of audience before the High Court, the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords. Certain senior Barristers are appointed as Queen's Counsel (Q.C.) by the Queen upon recommendation of the Lord Chancellor. Barristers who are Queen's Counsel handle only the more important cases. The Notary Public in England and Wales is appointed by the Court of Faculties of the Archbishop of Canterbury. A Notary Public prepares and authenticates documents. The official language of the courts is English, although Welsh may be used.
BELARUS	Please note: Complete and specific information regarding the legal system in Belarus, satisfactory to our publication requirements, was unobtainable at press time.
CHINA	The legal profession in China consists of three major areas: state-run, cooperative and partnerships. Single practitioners are permitted. The requirements for admission to practice include qualification as a lawyer and a practice certificate. The All China Lawyers Association is the national bar association. Chinese citizens may represent themselves in courts of law or ask a lawyer to represent them. Foreign law firms are permitted to open representative offices in China only by obtaining the permission of the Ministry of Justice and shall not violate the Interim Regulations of the Ministry of Justice and the State Industry and Commercial Bureau for Representative Offices of Foreign Law Firms. The Notary Public in China translates and authenticates documents. The official languages of the courts are the Han language or the minority languages in the autonomous regions.
FRANCE	The term for a lawyer in France is Avocat. Practice structures range from sole practitioner to unincorporated partnerships ("associations") and professional corporations with limited liabilities. The requirements for admission to practice are a Maîtrise en Droit or a Master 1, which grants students the right to attend an entrance exam to a regional bar school called Centre Régional de Formation Professionnelle des Avocats (CRFPA). There are fifteen CRFPA in France, the Paris one being called Ecole de Formation du Barreau (EFB). Successful candidates entering this school undergo eighteen months of professional training in both theory and practice. Upon successful completion of a final exam the CRFPA (or the EFB in Paris) will deliver a Certificat d'Aptitude à la Profession d'Avocat (CAPA), which allows the candidate to make oath of admission and to registrater as Avocat on the Bar Council's rolls. Avocats are admitted to practice before all courts of the judicial and administrative orders. Foreign lawyers originating from European Union Member States may pursue activities relating to the representation of a client in legal proceedings or before public authorities in France. A lawyer pursuing these activities must observe the French rules of professional conduct. Lawyers originating from countries outside of the European Union are not allowed to appear before local courts unless they are only accompanying a French lawyer. The Notary Public in France must obtain a Maîtrise en Droit followed by either a postgraduate university degree (DESS) in notarial law, or undertake a one-year course of study of both theory and practice in a Centre de Formation Professionnelle Notariale (notary public school). Upon completion of either, the candidate must then undertake a two-year period of practical training. A Notary Public enjoys two legal monopolies in France: conveyancing and the authentication of documents. The Notary Public advises generally in all matters but is primarily concerned with real estate conveyancing, wills and estates, and advising private clients on their patrimonial interests, often doing private client tax planning. The official language of the courts is French.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA	Please note: The Bosnia and Herzegovina legal system is undergoing major structural changes. Complete and specific information satisfactory to our publication requirements was unobtainable at press time.
GIBRALTAR	The term for a lawyer in Gibraltar is Barrister or Solicitor depending on the professional qualification obtained. The profession in Gibraltar is fused, meaning that Barristers may practice as Solicitors and vice versa. Partnerships are permitted. The requirement for admission to practice is admission as either Barrister or Solicitor or equivalent in England and Wales, Northern Ireland or Scotland. Barristers must complete a six-month pupillage in the United Kingdom or Gibraltar, or alternatively must have completed a practical training course approved by the Council of Legal Education in England or an equivalent body in Northern Ireland or Scotland. No further study or clerkship is required. After admission to practice, a Barrister or Solicitor may appear before any court in Gibraltar. The Notary Public in Gibraltar is appointed by the Court of Faculties of the Archbishop of Canterbury in England. A Notary Public authenticates and preserves documents. The official language of the courts is English.
HONG KONG	The former British Crown Colony of Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China on July 1, 1997. The term for a lawyer in Hong Kong is Solicitor or Barrister. Solicitors may form partnerships; Barristers may not. The requirements for admission to practice as a Solicitor are a qualifying law degree from a university and successful completion of the Postgraduate Certificate in Laws course (P.C.LL.), followed by a two-year trainee solicitor contract under a practicing Solicitor, along with fulfilling appropriate residency requirements. Overseas lawyers may be admitted to practice as a Solicitor in Hong Kong pursuant to the criteria specified in the Overseas Lawyers (Qualification for Admission) Rules and the Law Society's Guidelines for the Admission of Overseas Lawyers, including successful completion of the required portions of the Overseas Lawyers Qualification Examination and meeting residency requirements. (A person who offers services to the public as a practitioner of foreign law other than as solicitor or barrister of Hong Kong law is required to register with the Law Society as a Foreign Lawyer and is bound by the Legal Practitioners Ordinance and the Code of Conduct.) The requirements for admission to practice as a Barrister are a qualifying law degree from a university, followed by the Postgraduate Certificate in Laws course (P.C.LL.) and a pupillage, after six months of which a limited practice may be granted. Overseas lawyers who have practiced law in a foreign jurisdiction for at least three years may be admitted to practice as a Barrister in Hong Kong pursuant to the criteria specified under S.27(1) of the Legal Practitioners Ordinance. As a result of the recent changes to the admission criteria under the Legal Practitioners Ordinance, a Solicitor may apply to be admitted as a Barrister in Hong Kong; similarly, a Barrister may apply to be admitted as a Solicitor in Hong Kong. The qualification procedure for Notaries is currently under review following the change in sovereignty. The official languages of the courts are English and Chinese. English is still used in most proceedings in the High Court, but rules were implemented in 1997 to allow use of Chinese in these courts.
CAYMAN ISLANDS	The term for a lawyer in the Cayman Islands is Attorney at Law. Partnerships are permitted. There are three paths for admission to practice in the Cayman Islands: Admission to practice in England and Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland or Jamaica; admission to practice in a British Commonwealth Common Law jurisdiction; or graduation from the Cayman Islands Law School with an LL.B. and satisfactory completion of an articled clerkship. An Attorney at Law so qualified who holds Caymanian Status or a Work Permit may appear before any court in the Cayman Islands. Any lawyer qualified by any of the above three methods may appear before the courts for particular cases but generally only when briefed by a lawyer on the Island holding Caymanian Status or a Work Permit. The Notary Public in the Cayman Islands is appointed by the Governor in Council and need not be an Attorney at Law. A Notary Public authenticates and preserves documents. The official language of the courts is English.
ENGLAND	The rules governing the practice of law are the same for both England and Wales. A lawyer is referred to as either a Solicitor or a Barrister. Solicitors may form partnerships; Barristers may not. A Solicitor covers a wider range of areas than a Barrister, often overlapping professions such as accountant and estate agent. The requirements for admission to practice as a Solicitor are a university degree, followed by one year of practical training called the Legal Practice course and provided by institutions validated by The Law Society of England and Wales. The applicant must then serve a two-year trainee contract under a practicing Solicitor. At the end of the traineeship, the individual is admitted as a Solicitor. In order to practice, all Solicitors must obtain a Practising Certificate each year from The Law Society of England and Wales. Those applicants whose university education was in a subject other than law must complete an additional year of academic study before their Legal Practice course. Most advocacy in the lower courts is conducted by a Solicitor; for further litigation the Solicitor may instruct a Barrister to plead, although changes are in hand to bring the advocacy rights of the two branches in line with each other. (Solicitors have the right to appear in the higher courts after obtaining a further qualification.) A Barrister acts as a consultant, an advocate and an advisor in all matters involving litigation and the practice of courts; some Barristers may specialize in a particular field of law. A practicing Barrister normally has no direct contact with the client, although some clearly-defined professional groups are allowed direct access to Barristers. For admission to practice as a Barrister, the university graduate will follow a vocational course before being called to the bar. After a further one-year pupillage and examination, the rank of Barrister may be conferred by one of the four Inns of Court: Lincoln's Inn, Gray's Inn, Inner Temple and Middle Temple. The Inns of Court are guilds and have the sole right to confer the rank of Barrister and to disbar members for misconduct; all Barristers must be members of one of the four Inns. Barristers and Solicitors with higher court advocacy rights have the exclusive right of audience before the High Court, the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords. Certain senior Barristers are appointed as Queen's Counsel (Q.C.) by the Queen upon recommendation of the Lord Chancellor. Barristers who are Queen's Counsel handle only the more important cases. The Notary Public in England and Wales is appointed by the Court of Faculties of the Archbishop of Canterbury. A City of London Notary, known as a Scrivener Notary, serves a five-year apprenticeship under a practicing Notary Public. A Provincial Notary is usually a Solicitor; he or she may not practice in Inner London but may serve a specific local area. A Notary Public prepares and authenticates documents. The official language of the courts is English, although Welsh may be used in Wales.
ZIMBABWE	The term for a lawyer in Zimbabwe is Legal Practitioner. Until 1981, the legal profession was divided into Attorneys (Solicitors) and Advocates (Barristers); this division was abolished in 1981 leading to the general title of Legal Practitioner. All Legal Practitioners are answerable to one Law Society, which regulates the affairs of the legal profession. The requirement for admission to practice is a designated law degree, usually an LL.B. (Hons.) from the University of Zimbabwe. Certain specified degrees (which include an LL.B. from the University of Zambia, the National University of Lesotho or the University of Swaziland; an LL.B., B.Juris or B.Proc. from an approved school in South Africa; or an LL.B. or any degree awarded in the United Kingdom which entitles the holder to practice as a Barrister or Solicitor) may be designated subject to the holder of the degree successfully completing professional examinations. Local graduates are exempt from their professional examinations. Upon admission a registered Legal Practitioner can only practice after being issued a practicing certificate from the Law Society, which is renewable annually. Once the certificate has been issued a Legal Practitioner may appear before any court in Zimbabwe. Limited practicing certificates may be issued to registered Legal Practitioners in non-governmental organizations to enable them to appear before the courts only within the context of their line of work. Senior foreign Counsel can be granted ad hoc admission for a single case. The Notary Public in Zimbabwe is a Legal Practitioner who authenticates and preserves documents. A Conveyancer is a Legal Practitioner who prepares and registers documents relating to immovable property and real rights, which may only be done by a Conveyancer. A Legal Practitioner must pass the Notarial Practice and Conveyancing examination in order to be registered as a Notary Public and/or a Conveyancer. The official language of the courts is English; the indigenous languages are dealt with by interpretation.
PALESTINE	Please note: Complete and specific information regarding the legal system in Palestine, satisfactory to our publication requirements,was unobtainable at press time.
SWEDEN	The term for a lawyer in Sweden is Biträdande Jurist or Advokat, depending upon level of experience. Partnerships are permitted. The requirement for admission to practice as a Biträdande Jurist (Assistant Lawyer) is the successful completion of a Juris Kandidat examination. To be certified as an Advokat, an applicant must practice law for five years, at least three years of which shall be spent working with an Advokat. Additionally, an applicant must pass a Bar exam, must also be found fit to practice law and must not hold any public or private appointment. The title of Advokat is reserved for members of the Swedish Bar, but not all who practice law in Sweden are members of that association. After admission to practice, both the Advokat and Biträdande Jurist may appear before any court in Sweden. Foreign lawyers may be allowed to appear in Swedish courts under certain circumstances. Although anyone may appear before any court in Sweden, only a member of the Swedish Bar can be assigned as counsel in criminal cases. The official language of the courts is Swedish.
ICELAND	The term for a lawyer in Iceland is Lögmadur (Advocate). Partnerships are permitted. The requirements for admission to practice are having full legal competence under the Majority Act as well as mental capability to practice law, never having declared bankruptcy, having an untainted reputation as required for being eligible in Parliamentary elections, completion of an examination in law from the University of Iceland and completion of a test conducted by a Test Committee. The lawyer is then referred to as a Héradsdómslögmadur (Advocate to the District or Lower Courts). After five years of practice and the oral presentation of thirty or more cases before District Courts or courts of special jurisdiction and two cases before the Supreme Court, a Héradsdómslögmadur may be admitted to practice before the Supreme Court, with the title of Hæstaréttarlögmadur (Advocate to the Supreme Court). Foreign Advocates, who may appear before comparable courts within the European Economic Area, may appear before Icelandic courts in cooperation with Icelandic Advocates. The republic of Iceland has no independent profession of notaries. Notarial work is done by county sheriffs. The official language of the courts is Icelandic.
MOLDOVA	Please note: Complete and specific information, satisfactory to our publication requirements, regarding the Moldova legal system was unobtainable at press time.
BERMUDA	The term for a lawyer in Bermuda, utilized since 1974 by the Bermuda Bar, which regulates the legal profession, is Barrister and Attorney. The legal profession is fused, meaning that there is no formal distinction between the role of Barristers and Solicitors as in England, and all lawyers who have a valid practicing certificate have the right to appear before the courts. Bermudian partnerships are permitted, although it appears to be current immigration policy to prohibit the admission of non-Bermudians to equity partnership. Except for the general applicable obligations with respect to accounting and compliance with other professional obligations applicable to lawyers generally, there are no rules governing the establishment of legal partnerships as such. The requirements for admission to practice are admission as a Barrister or Solicitor in the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth countries, which generally involves obtaining a law degree (or equivalent) and passing subsequent vocational examinations, as well as a required twelve-month work experience known as pupillage. In the case of non-Bermudians, to be called to the Bar they must possess a valid work permit and have been resident in Bermuda for at least one year during the fifteen years preceding application. A Barrister and Attorney may appear before all courts in Bermuda. In addition to the fully-fledged members of the Bermuda Bar, the Supreme Court Act provides for the special admission of senior Barristers and Attorneys to the Bermuda Bar (usually only foreign lawyers possessing the rank "Queen's Counsel" will be so admitted) in relation to particular cases which raise points of law or practice of considerable difficulty or public importance. The Notary Public in Bermuda must be a Bermudian member of the Bermuda Bar of not less than five years' standing and is appointed by the Supreme Court. Documents requiring to be sworn or otherwise attested to may be signed and/or sworn before a notary, where this is required, or any member of the Bar, where a commissioner of oaths is sufficient. The official language of the courts is English.
BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS	The term for a lawyer in the British Virgin Islands is Barrister or Solicitor. Solicitors and Barristers may form partnerships with each other, but not with any person not qualified to practice law. The requirements for admission to practice as a Barrister are a degree from a recognized university and a Certificate of Legal Education from the Council of Legal Education of the West Indies or admission to practice as a Barrister in England and Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland. The requirement for admission to practice as a Solicitor is admission as a Solicitor in England and Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland. Barristers may practice as Solicitors, but Solicitors may not practice as Barristers. Lawyers from other English-speaking Caribbean islands may appear before the courts for particular cases after admission to the British Virgin Islands Bar. Barristers and Solicitors with higher court advocacy rights have the exclusive right of audience before the High Court and the Court of Appeals, as well as the Privy Council in England. Senior Barristers who excel in advocacy and enjoy the respect of their peers are appointed as Queen's Counsel (Q.C.) by the Queen upon formal recommendation of the Lord Chancellor of England after commendation by the Chief Justice. Barristers who are Queen's Counsel handle only the more complex cases. The Notary Public authenticates and preserves important documents and may exercise the power of drawing and issuing all deeds, contracts and other commercial transactions and administer any oath or take and receive affidavits. Prior to The Commissioner for Oaths and Notary Public Act 2007, which came into effect in August 2008, a Notary Public in the British Virgin Islands was invariably a qualified lawyer appointed by the Chief Justice of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court. Under the Act, to be eligible for appointment as a Notary Public, one must be a practicing lawyer of at least three years in the Virgin Islands and a native Virgin Islander, or has lawfully resided in the Virgin Islands continuously for the three years immediately preceding and is otherwise of unblemished character. Exceptions are made for legislators, who are not required to be practicing lawyers, and the Chief Justice is given the discretion to approve a person for enrollment as a notary if the applicant satisfies all other requirements, but is not a practicing lawyer. Application to be enrolled as a Notary must be made in writing to the High Court. There is a six-month transition period during which existing notaries may apply in writing to be enrolled as a Notary under the Act. The official language of the courts is English. Please note: There are at present plans to modernize and regulate the legal profession in the British Virgin Islands. Modern legal profession legislation is expected to be on the law books shortly. This is expected, among other things, to provide for practicing certificates that are to be renewed annually.
BARBADOS	The term for a lawyer in Barbados is Attorney-at-Law. Partnerships are permitted. The requirements for admission to practice are an LL.B. from the University of the West Indies or other approved university, followed by two years of practical training at one of the three law schools of the Council of Legal Education and the award of a Certificate of Legal Education. After admission to practice, an Attorney-at-Law may appear before any court in Barbados and the Privy Council in England. Lawyers admitted to practice in other CARICOM countries are permitted to appear before the courts in Barbados after being admitted to the Bar of Barbados. The notarial functions are carried out by government officials: the Registrar and Deputy Registrar; notaries public are not appointed from among lawyers in private practice. The official language of the courts is English.
CROATIA	The term for a lawyer in Croatia is Odvjetnik. Partnerships (javno trgovacko drustvo) are permitted. The requirements for admission to practice are Croatian citizenship, graduation from a Croatian faculty of law, followed by completion of at least a three-year internship in a law office or judicial body, or at least five years of practice in other legal jobs, and successful completion of the bar examination in Croatia. An Odvjetnik may request recognition of specialization in a particular legal area from the Croatian Bar Association. An Odvjetnik may practice law before any court in Croatia. Foreign lawyers may not practice in Croatia except when representing parties in legal matters concerning a foreign element in procedures before the permanent arbitration courts. The Javni Biljeznik (Notary Public) in Croatia must, among other requirements, be a Croatian citizen and graduate from a Croatian faculty of law or a foreign law school, provided the diploma is validated in Croatia; additionally, the candidate must successfully complete the bar examination, followed by five years of legal practice and pass a Notary Public examination. A Javni Biljeznik draws up and issues official documents and authenticates private documents. The official language of the courts is Croatian.
JAMAICA	The term for a lawyer in Jamaica is Attorney-at-Law. Partnerships are permitted. The requirements for admission to practice are an LL.B. from the University of the West Indies or an approved university, followed by two years of practical training established by the Council of Legal Education at any of the three local law schools and a Certificate of Legal Education. After admission to practice, an Attorney-at-Law may appear before any court in Jamaica. A lawyer from one English-speaking Caribbean country is qualified for admission in another English-speaking territory. Other foreign lawyers may not appear before any court in Jamaica. The Notary Public in Jamaica must be an Attorney-at-Law of at least ten years' experience. A Notary Public authenticates and preserves documents. The official language of the courts is English.
SOUTH AFRICA	The term for a lawyer in South Africa is Attorney or Advocate; these terms are equivalent to the British terms Solicitor and Barrister. Attorneys may form partnerships; Advocates may not. The requirements for admission to practice as an Attorney are an LL.B. degree, followed by a one-year apprenticeship and successful completion of a practical examination. Attorneys may appear before all courts. The requirements for admission to practice as an Advocate are an LL.B. degree obtained from a South African university, followed by a one-year apprenticeship (called a pupillage) and successful completion of the Bar Examinations. Advocates may appear before all courts (including the High Court of South Africa in terms of the Admission of Advocates Act No. 74 of 1964). The Advocates' profession is a referral profession; Advocates are therefore instructed by an Attorney. The Notary in South Africa must be an Attorney and must successfully complete a specialist examination. A Notary authenticates particular documents. A Conveyancer must also be an Attorney and complete a specialist examination. A Conveyancer registers deeds of transfer. South Africa has eleven official languages, any of which may be used in the courts.
NEW ZEALAND	Please note: The Lawyers and Conveyancers Act 2006 was implemented on August 1, 2008. It can be accessed at www.legislation.govt.nz. The term for a lawyer in New Zealand is Lawyer, Barrister or Barrister and Solicitor. All New Zealand lawyers are admitted as Barristers and Solicitors but may practise as Barristers sole or as Barristers and Solicitors. Partnerships between those practising as Barristers only are not permitted. Partnerships between those practising as Barristers and Solicitors are permitted. Lawyers may establish incorporated law firms, subject to restraints set out in the legislation. New Zealand lawyers are not permitted to practise in partnership with members of other professions or with lawyers holding only foreign qualifications. The requirements for admission to practise are a four-year law degree and the completion of a 13-week Professional Legal Studies Course. Before practising alone or in a partnership, a Barrister and Solicitor must have three years' practical experience in a legal office. After admission to practise, a lawyer may appear before any court in New Zealand. The rank of Senior Counsel is available in New Zealand to litigation specialists. Lawyers from other countries must apply to the New Zealand Council of Legal Education (www.nzcle.org.nz) for assessment of their qualifications and experience before applying to be admitted in New Zealand. Lawyers from other jurisdictions may provide certain legal services, including foreign law and international law, in New Zealand and may use their home title (§25 of the Lawyers and Conveyancers Act 2006 refers). The Notary Public in New Zealand must be a lawyer and is appointed by the Court of Faculties of the Archbishop of Canterbury in England. A Notary Public exercises functions similar to those of notaries in other jurisdictions. The official language of the courts is English, but Maori is also an official language of New Zealand and there are rights to speak Maori in certain proceedings. The third official language of the courts is New Zealand sign language.
UKRAINE	The judicial system of Ukraine is outlined in the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine. Before this there was no notion of judicial review nor any Supreme Court since 1991's Ukrainian independence. Ukraine inherited most of its principles from the court system of the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR. The court system of Ukraine is slowly being restructured. Although judicial independence exists in principle, in practice there is little separation of judicial and political powers. Ukrainian courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by measures adopted in Ukrainian law in 2010. Immunity from prosecution is guaranteed to judges. Although there are still problems with the performance of the system, it is considered to have been much improved since the last judicial reform introduced in 2002. The Supreme Court is regarded as being an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. Ukraine has no jury system; most cases are heard by either a single judge or two judges accompanied by assessors. Ukraine has about 8,000 judges. Independent lawyers and human rights activists have complained Ukrainian judges regularly come under pressure to hand down a certain verdict. The judicial system of Ukraine consists of four levels of courts of general jurisdiction, as follows: Local Courts Local "general" courts (combining criminal and civil jurisdiction) consisting of: district, urban district and town courts; city courts in Kiev and Sevastopol. Local specialized courts (either commercial or administrative jurisdiction) consisting of: regional courts; commercial and administrative courts of the capital of Autonomous Republic of Crimea. Courts of appeal Courts of Appeal (combining criminal and civil jurisdiction), consisting of: regional courts of appeal; court of appeal of the capital of Autonomous Republic of Crimea; courts of appeal of the cities of Kiev and Sevastopol. Specialized Courts of Appeal (either commercial or administrative jurisdiction) consisting of: commercial courts of appeal; administrative courts of appeal. Courts of cassation Cassation Court of Ukraine existed until 2003. Those courts were recognized as unconstitutional by the Constitution Court of Ukraine. High courts with specialized jurisdiction The High Specialized Court on Civil and Criminal Cases, covering civil and criminal cases; The High Administrative Court of Ukraine, covering administrative cases; The High Commercial Court of Ukraine, covering economic and commercial cases. The Supreme Court of Ukraine Supreme Court is the highest court within the system of courts of general jurisdiction, conducting the review regarding unequal application of the rules of substantive law by the cassation courts and subject to cases when international judicial institution the jurisdiction of which is recognized by Ukraine has established the violation of international obligations by Ukraine.

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